Comparing Destination Image and Loyalty between First-time and Repeat-visit Tourists

The objective of this study was to investigate the difference between destination image and loyalty among first-time and repeat-visit tourists. The study was undertaken to examine aspects of underlying factors of destination image that influenced tourists’ willingness to recommend Malaysia to their friends and relatives as well as spread positive word-of-mouth to others. In addition, it was to ascertain the relationship between destination image and loyalty among first-time and repeat-visit tourists. The data was collected at Kuala Lumpur International Airport at the departure hall using selfadministered questionnaires. 248 usable questionnaires were returned and analysed. The findings of the study revealed that both groups of tourists perceived Malaysia as providing a nature-based destination. The study also empirically proved that both first-time and repeat-visit tourists were willing to disseminate positive word-of-mouth and recommend Malaysia to their friends and relatives as a vacation destination to visit. However, there was a significant difference in destination loyalty between first-visit and repeat-visit tourists.


Introduction
Nowadays, the leading and single largest industry in the world is tourism and the importance of the industry is reflected through its economic contribution to the nation [1].The industry promotes economic growth especially through income generation, employment opportunities and foreignexchange earnings.Parallel to the global development in the sector, the tourism industry is also one of the important sectors that generates Malaysia's economic growth [2].In 2012, it became the second major foreign-earning sector [3] next to manufacturing.Recognising the great economic potentials in the tourism industry, it was identified as one of the National Key Economic Areas in the Malaysia Government Transformation Programme (GTP) to achieve the country's Vision 2020: to become an advanced nation by year 2020 [4].
The 2013 Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Index (TTCI) revealed that, among the ASEAN countries, Malaysia ranked second after Singapore, followed by Thailand, Indonesia, Brunei, Vietnam, the Philippines and Cambodia.However, in the tourism world ranking, Switzerland, Germany and Austria lead the world in terms of travel and tourism competitiveness, with Spain, the United Kingdom, the United States, France, Canada, Sweden and Singapore achieving the first top 10 countries visited by tourists.In the list, Malaysia was ranked 34th and it aspires to be within the top ten countries of the world in terms of global tourism receipts by 2015 [5] by focusing on the country's wealth of natural beauty and cultural heritage as reflected in the slogan "Malaysia, Truly Asia" that captures and defines the country's unique cultural diversity, festivals, traditions and customs, offering myriad experiences [6].This image of Malaysia as a choice travel destination was disseminated through the promotional activies by the Malaysia Tourism Promotion Board (Tourism Malaysia).
This initiative was undertaken to influence them to visit and make returning visits to Malaysia.However, it was reported that between 2010 and 2012, the majority of the international tourists indicated that the trip to Malaysia was their first trip [7,8].This data indicated that efforts have to be stepped-up to encourage returning tourists to Malaysia.Morerover, as highlighted by the World Travel and Tourism Council [9] and Mintel [10], the main problem of the tourism industry in Malaysia is image.The theme of "Malaysia Truly Asia" focusing on promoting the country's image of a multi-racial and cultural society seems to not have had much influence on tourists to make return visits to Malaysia [11].
The above developments in Malaysia's travel and tourism industry denoted that a study on destination loyalty is crucial to uncover insights concerning retaining loyal tourists.The importance of securing loyal tourists is indeed enormous as loyal tourists are more likely to spread positive word-ofmouth based on their travel experiences of a destination and it can reduce marketing costs [12].Moreover, Schiffman and Kanuk [13] claimed that it is more expensive to win new customers compared to keeping existing customers.Studies have shown that small reductions in customer defection can generate significant increase in profits as (1) loyal tourists pay less attention to competitors' destinations and are less price sensitive; (2) loyal tourists repeat visit; (3) servicing existing customers who are familiar with the destination is cheaper; and (4) loyal tourists spread positive word-of-mouth.
According to Haque and Highe [14], a loyal tourist will help to generate more revenue and it is considered an outcome of a successful tourism destination.Against this background, ascertaining the effect of destination image on destination loyalty is eminent to be carried out since such a study could provide insightful information pertaining to aspects that would inspire existing and potential tourists' selecting Malaysia as a holiday destination [15,16].According to Byeong and Nunkoo [17] and Li [18], destination image has positive impact on destination loyalty.Since the first-time tourists have limited knowledge about a destination compared to repeat-visit tourists, it is essential to segment them into two different groups to better understand their behaviours so that appropriate promotional strategies can be designed meeting their different requirements.Thus, the main aim of the study was to meet the following objectives: 1.To determine the underlying factors measuring destination image of first-time and repeatvisit tourists.
2. To determine the effect of destination image on destination loyalty for the first-time and repeat-visit tourists.

Literature Review
Destination loyalty is defined as the whole feelings and attitudes that encourage tourists to revisit a particular destination [19].A study on destination loyalty was highlighted as one of the most critical subjects in tourism researches [20].Creating a strong, consistent, different and noticable image that generates positive ideas for a destination [21] would develop a destination loyalty.Destination loyalty can be measured through three dimensions: behavioural approach, attitudinal approach and composite approach.Behavioural approach is measured by identifying the number of repeat-visit tourists [22] or respondents' intention to revisit [23] Attitudinal approach is measured through recommendation of the destination to others, positive word-of-mouth and assurance to a preferred destination [24].
Composite approach is a combination of behavioural and attitudinal approach that is used to describe wholly the idea of customer loyalty [22,24].This study applied a composite approach to measure destination loyalty by examining tourists' intention to revisit, recommendation of the destination and disimination of positive word-of-mouth to others.
Destination image is defined as the sum of beliefs, attitudes and impressions that individuals or groups hold towards tourist destinations or aspects of destination [25].According to Pavlovic and Belullo [15], destination image has been studied for more than 30 years by other researchers as it is accepted as an important element of destination management [26,21].There are two major approaches in measuring destination image: three-dimensional continuum approach and threecomponent approach [27].
The three-dimensional continuum approach of image is referred to as attribute-holistic, functionalpsychological and common-unique proposed by Echtner and Ritchie [28].Attribute-holistic line reacted to the fact that destination image should include the perceptions of individual attributes such as accommodation facilities, friendliness of the people and climate, etc plus holistic impression such as mental picture or the imagery of the destination.Along the functional-psychological continuum, functional characteristics are more concerned with tangible aspects of the destination because they are directly observable or measurable, while psychological characteristics are intangible aspects because they are more difficult to measure or observe.
Common-unique continuum catered for the inspiration of individuals form perceptions based on common characteristics to those based on unique features or aura.The second approach of measuring destination image is a three-component approach which comprised cognitive, affective and conative components [29].Cognitive component refers to the belief and knowledge about a destination's attributes.Affective component refers to the attachment or feeling towards a destination.Conative component of destination image refers to the onsite behaviour expressed by tourists developed from cognitive and affective images [27].
This study adopted a functional-psychological measurement of destination image, one of the dimensions mentioned in Echtner and Ritchie [28].This is because it focused on particular destination attributes [30], it is simple to code, results are easy to analyse using sophisticated statistical techniques and easy to administer [31].A recent study by Jamaludin, Johari, Kayat and Yusof [32] found that destination image has direct positive relationship with destination loyalty.Similarly, Mohamad, Rusdi and Mokhlis [33] suggested that favourable destination image will encourage foreign tourists to spread positive recommendations (attitudinal) as well as intention to repeat visitisation in the future (Behaviour).

Target Population and Questionnaire Design
The target population in this study refers to the European tourists that visited Malaysia for a holiday, business trip, conference, visiting friends or relatives for at least one day but less than one year [34].The purpose of choosing European tourists is based on two indicators proposed by the Kuala Lumpur structure plan 2020, namely tourist arrival and average length of stay.These indicators were used to evaluate tourism performance.Base on these indicators, it seemed that Europeans scored the highest range of tourists arrivals and average length of stay compared to other regions: America, Oceania, Asia, and Africa.
The items to measure destination image and destination loyalty were identified from the previous literature.The survey instruments consists of three sections.Section A contains 31 items to measure destination image.These items were adapted from the work of Echtner and Ritchie [35] using a 7point Likert scale ranging from 1 as highly disagree to 7 as highly agree.Section B contains 5 questions on destination loyalty which were adapted from the work of Zeithmal, Berry and Parasuraman [36] using a 7-point Likert scale from 1 as "not at all likely" to 7 as "extremely likely".The last section of the questionnare was designed to gather information about the tourists including country of residence, gender, age, marital status and purpose of visit.A content validity was conducted to ensure how well the dimensions and elements of the concept have been explained [37].In this case, two academicians were involved in reviewing the questionnaire.
A pilot study with respondents (n = 100) that had a similar background with the actual respondents was carried out at the Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KLIA) in order to improve the quality and efficiency of collecting data.Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was performed after conducting the pilot test to reduce and summarise items of destination image and destination loyalty.In addtion, EFA was conducted to identify the underlying factors representing the constructs in the study.Moreover, the pilot study was conducted to test the reliability and validity of the research instruments prior to the actual collecting of data.

Data Collection
Data collection for the actual study was carried out at the Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KLIA).A self-administered questionnaires was distributed to the respondents at the departure hall.The respondents completed the survey at his or her own pace which normally took not more than 20 minutes to complete.Enumerators would than collect the completed questionnaires from the respondents.A total of 1000 questionnaires were distributed at the pre-identified departure halls to all eligible respondents and 820 completed questionnaires were returned.
Two stages of sampling method were used.A systematic sampling method was used where, after a random starting point, every 5th intercepted respondent was included in the study.820 respondents answered the questionnaire completely.After conducting the systematic sampling method, simple random sampling was choosen to select the study sample.The purpose of choosing simple random sampling is because it can reduce the potential human bias in the selection of cases to be included in the sample [38].
Hence, Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) software was used to select the respondents by "Random Sample of Cases".A sampling frame was created based on the 820 returned questionnaires because accurate data for the size of the target population for this study was not available [39].A simple random-sampling technique using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) software was used to select the respondents by "Random Sample of Cases".Based on the created sampling frame, a total of 420 respondents were selected as the sample size for the study representing approximately 50 percent of the population.
However, after conducting a data-cleaning process through deleting missing items and outliers, only 248 respondents with 143 respondents representing first-time tourists and 105 representing repeat tourists were used which was sufficient to provide statistical power for data analysis.It can be supported by Burn and Bush [39] that the recommended sample size using confidence interval method with p (estimates percent in the population = 50%, q (100 -p) = 50%, and e (acceptable sample error expressed as a percent) between ±5% and ±10% at 95% level of confidence, whereby the calculated sample size (n) is between 96 and 384.Therefore, the usable sample size of 248 met the sample-size requirements of Burn and Bush [39].

Data Analysis
Discriptive analysis such as means and frequencies were applied to examine the respondents' demographic profile.Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was applied in this study to confirm the measurement model derived by EFA [40].After conducting Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), assessment for reliability and validity were applied to evaluate the quality of the measurement process [41].Reliability was assessed using two criteria, namely internal reliability and construct reliability.Internal reliability was used to ensure that the research instruments were from free random error or without bias using Cronbach' Alpha or coefficient alpha to test the scale of destination images and 01047-p.4 SHS Web of Conferences destination loyalty respectively [42].Hair et al. [40] recommended that the value for alpha coefficient greater and equal to 0.7 is generally considered to be the acceptable lower limit of reliability.Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) was applied to the data set to test the causal relationship between destination image and destination loyalty simultaneously.
Construct Reliability (CR) was used with SEM model to measure reliability and internal consistency of the measured variables [40].A value of 0.6 or higher is acceptable to achieve construct reliability [43].Construct validity was performed to measure the extent to which a set of items actually reflect the thoeretical latent construct.Validity of the construct were assessed using convergent validity and discriminant validity.Convergent validity is achieved by checking the Average Variance Extracted (AVE).An AVE of 0.5 or higher is a good rule of thumb suggesting adequate convergence [40].Discriminant validity can be fulfilled by looking at the square root values of AVE constructs and comparing them with the correlation estimates between two constructs [40].Validity is achieved when the square root of AVE is higher than the values of correlations between constructs.

Demographic's Profile
Most of the European tourists visiting Malaysia for the first-time were from the Western European region (50.3%),namely countries of the Netherlands, Germany, France, Switzerland, Belgium, Austria and Holland.Majorities of repeat-visit tourists were from the Northern European region (54.3%),namely countries of the United Kingdom, Sweden, Ireland, Scotland, Norway and Finland.Both groups of tourists were dominated by male tourists with 59.4% for the first-time tourists and 64.8% for the repeat tourists.
Majority of the first-time and repeat-visit tourists visiting Malaysia were single or living with their partner which comprised 71% and 75% respectively.Most of the first-time tourists represent younger age group (82%) compared to repeat-visit tourists (53%).The purpose of visiting Malaysia for both groups was for holidaying.

Assessment of Normality, Reliability and Validity
The normality test was conducted by looking at the skewness and value of mutivariate kurtosis.The suggested value for skewness ranged between ± 3.00 and kurtosis less than 8.00 [44] although some would suggest that the absolute value of skewness shoud be ± 1.00.However, the use of SEM using the Maximum Likelihood Estimator (MLE) is fairly robust to skewness greater than ± 1.00 if the sample size is large and a sample size greater than 200 is considered large.The value of mutivariate kurtosis should be less than 50.0 [45].In this study, the values of skewness and kurtosis for both first-time and repeat-visit tourists are less than the recommended cut-off points.In addition, multivariate kurtosis for both first-time and repeat-visit tourists are less than 50.
Thus, these values indicated that there is no univariate non-normality affiliated with the data.Reliability and validity tests were performed on both first-time and repeat-visit tourists measurements of destination image and loyalty.Table 1 and Table 2 illustrate the outputs from the tests measuring destination image and loyalty respectively.The analyses indicated that the factor loadings of the items measuring destination image and loyalty for both first-time and repeat-visit tourists achieved unidimensionality, with all the factor loadings being equal to or more than 0.6.In addition, the results of these tests indicated that the Cronbach's alpha coefficient value (Į) met the required cut-off point and the analysis revealed that all items were free from random errors.
Meanwhile, the values of Average Variance Extracted (AVE) and Composite Reliability (CR) also achieved the required levels which are above 0.5 and 0.7 respectively.Results in Table 1 and Table 2 suggested that all items measuring destination image and loyalty respectively for both first-01047-p.5 time and repeat-visit tourists fulfilled the of reliability and convergent validity.Table 3 and Table 4 present the discriminant validity index summary for both first-time and repeat-visit tourist.The results indicated that the diagonal values (the square roof of AVE) are higher than the correlations between the respective constructs suggesting that the discriminant validity for the constructs is achieved.

Structural Models Goodness-of-fit
Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was used to confirm the measurement model after conducting Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA).The result from EFA would provide the underlying factors that best represent the data together with their respective measuring items.Following EFA, CFA was carried out to test the goodness-of-fit of the variables measuring the studied constructs.Any measuring items that obtained factor loadings of less than 0.6 and squared multiple correlations (R 2 ) of less than 0.4 should be dropped from the analysis [45] as supported by the literature.Figure 1 and Figure 2 illustrates the structural model that depicts the relationship between destination image and destination loyalty for the first-time and repeat-visit tourists visiting Malaysia respectively.Several indexes were used to test the structural model goodness-of-fit as indicated below.The results of the tests proved that these models achieved fitness indexes at the acceptable level of goodness-of-fit as illustrated in Figure 1 and Figure 2.

The Causal Effect of Destination Image on Destination Loyalty
The findings in Figure 1 indicated that the five items are grouped into two underlying factors measuring destination image for the first-time tourists.These factors are labelled as "Safe and Clean" and "Natural Attractions".On the other hand, the findings in Figure 2 suggested that destination image for repeat-visit tourists was manifested by seven items.Loyalty construct for both groups of tourists were manifested by four items as depicted in Table 2.The results in Table 1 also specified that destination image had a causal effect on destination loyalty for both groups of tourists as indicated by the significant p-values (0.001) for both groups of tourists.An earlier study by Mohamad and Ab Ghani [46] suggested that there were six underlying factors that measured first-visit tourists' destination image namely "safe and clean", "natural attractions", "tourists activities', "political stability", "beaches" and "price".Interestingly, this study proposed that only two factors which are identified as "safe and clean" and "natural attractions" had causal effects on destination loyalty among first-visit tourists.Remarkably, three items grouped in "natural attractions" for the first-time tourists also appeared in the repeat-visit measurement of destination image.These items are marked bold in Table 1, Table 5 and Table 6.Thus, the study suggested that both first-visit and repeat tourists agreed that Malaysia, as a travel destination, offers natural attractions in terms of natural scenic beauty and the chance to see wildlife which make visiting Malaysia an adventurous holiday.
In addition, the findings of the study also proposed that there are four items that measure destination loyalty for both groups of tourist.Both groups would suggest and encourage friends and relatives to visit Malaysia as a vacation destination.Moreover, they would consider Malaysia as a vacation choice to visit in the future and disseminate positive word-of-mouth about Malaysia to other people.However, the result of the independent t-test revealed that the two groups of the respondents differ significantly (t =2.25, p < 0.004) in destination loyalty.The null hypothesis that there is no difference of means between the two groups is rejected.The result indicated that, repeat-visit tourists have a higher level of loyalty (mean = 6.20) compared to the first-time tourists (mean = 5.96) on a scale of 1 to 7.

Discussions and Conclusion
This study that the image of nature-based tourism should become the major selling point of Malaysia as a travel destination as opposed to cultural diversity as is being promoted and emphasised in the promotional campaign under the tag line "Malaysia Truly Asia".Empirical evidence from this study suggested that both first-time and repeat-visit tourists believed and formed impressions that Malaysia offers nature-based tourism.The natural scenic beauty with the chance to see wildlife accompanied by a host of adventurous activites, in turn influenced tourist destination loyalty.These unique aspects of destination image perceived by the tourists reflected their demand for ecotourism products.Therefore, it is strongly advised to Tourism Malaysia to focus on developing and enhancing the potentials of ecotourism sector.Ecotourism is regarded as travelling to relatively undisturbed natural areas that have low visitor impact [47].According to the International Ecotourism Society (TIES), the ecotourism participants require a variety of activities, which include land and water-based activities, however the most popular of them are wildlife watching, visiting protected areas and hiking [48].Efforts should be undertaken to ensure that tourism developments in Malaysia would comply to meeting the requirements of ecotourism that usually conveys a great concern on an environmentally friendly, relatively undisturbed natural areas and promotes conservations whilst providing beneficial social economic activities to the local pupulations.The importance of ecotourism seems to be increasingly recognised as having great potentials to attract tourists, especially foreign tourists, to Malaysia based on recent intiatives undertaken by Toursim Malaysia to introduce and promote ecotourism products.The variety of products includes tropical forests, mountain and hills, lakes, caves and the many species of flora and fauna [47].However, there are other aspect of destination image that should be highlighted in the promotional activities, especially among first-time tourists such as safety.Recent incidents of kidnapping and terrorist threats on the eastern coast of Sabah and the islands close to the southern Philippines, and incidents of Malaysia airlines disasters probably would affect Malaysia's destination image in term of safety.Adequate measures should be undertaken to assure potential tourists that visiting Malaysia is relatively safe compared to the other ASEAN countries, and these incidences were isolated cases.Though, this is not an issue of great concern to the repeat-visit tourists since they had better knowledge about Malaysia compared to the first-visit tourists based on their past travel experiences.Their returning trips to Malaysia are not only because of the many interesting places to visit with good facilities for sports and recreational activities, but also because of the nature-based activities that would occupy them with a lot of adventurous holiday activities.These are the critical aspects that Tourism Malaysia should focus on in the efforts to sustain the development in the Malaysia tourism industry in the future.This is crucial to ensure that Malaysia remains competitive and offers travel experiences fulfilling the requirements of the global tourism industry that demands quality travel experiences.

DOI: 10
.1051/ C Owned by the authors, published by EDP Sciences, 2014

Figure 1 .Figure 2 .
Figure 1.Structural model of destination and destination loyalty for first-time tourist

Table 1 .
Reliability and convergent validity of destination image for first-time and repeat-visit tourists

Malaysia offers the chance to see wildlife (D38) 0.83 na na na 0.80 na na na Malaysia offers a lot in terms of scenic beauty
Reliability and convergent validity of destination loyalty for first-time and repeat-visit tourists

Table 3 .
Discriminant Validity Index Summary First-Time Tourists

Table 4 .
Discriminant Validity Index Summary Repeat-Visit Tourist

Table 5 .
The unstandardized regression weight for the first-time tourist

Table 6 .
The unstandardized regression weight for the repeat-visit tourist