American culture-specific items designating status: Translation aspects

. The study deals with culture-specific items denoting the status of a person in the novel Gone with the Wind by Margaret Mitchell and its translations into Ukrainian and Russian. The paper focuses around lexemes that functioned during and after the Civil War and nominated the inhabitants of the USA according to their background, political and religious views, social layer, occupation, ethnic or Afro-American identity. Structuring cultural knowledge is manifested in the cultural code, which is verbalised due to the use of the abovementioned groups of words denoting status in the novel under study. With the view to the specificity of the time described, the novel abounds in culture-specific items that cause difficulty in Ukrainian and Russian translations, thus presupposing the translator’s striving for either preservation of the historical epoch in the target text or its substitution with the features of contemporary life. The translation techniques applied are transcoding; borrowing from the English or other European languages; descriptive translation (explicitation); literal translation; neutralization; approximate translation; the use of translational doublets; contextual translation; omission. Research results contribute to the development of cultural translation which studies specific differences of source and target texts with the respect both to the source and target cultures.


Introduction
The research deals with the culture-specific items which represent historically and culturally specific information in the novel Gone with the Wind by M. Mitchell [1] and their rendering in Russian and Ukrainian translations.
The novel written in 1936 describes the time of the Civil War in the United States in the 60es of the 19 th century. The Ukrainian translation accomplished by Rostyslav Dotsenko [2], who was a famous Ukrainian translator and literary critic, was published in 1992. The Russian translation prepared by Tatiana Ozerskaya [3], a renowned Russian translator, was published for the first time in 1982. Thus both Ukrainian and Russian translations were meant for the readers, who, on the one hand, belong to a different culture, and, on the other hand, are separated from that time by more than a hundred years.

Theoretical Background
Translating a historical novel there arises a dilemma -to represent the phenomena, which do not exist at present, and to render the words, denoting notions, that are no longer in use. In his paradoxes of translation T. H. Savory points out an important demand put to the translation of the fiction that describes the past epochs specifying that the target text should read as a contemporary of the original and a contemporary of the translator, i.e. the target reader at the same time [5: 49]. On the other hand, in a historical novel lexical, morphological and syntactical archaic forms aim at creating a special stylistic effect of a definite epoch [6: 142]. Hence, the problem faced by the translators is whether to bring the translated text closer to their own time and target cultural community ignoring historical and archaic words or use corresponding words of the target language in order to preserve the atmosphere of the epoch reflected in the original text. After all, there is another option when both approaches are combined and balanced. This is especially important, as the shift to the excessive use of archaisms and historicisms in the translation can make the text absolutely obscured, whereas omitting the lexical units mentioned above will deprive the text of its historical and cultural flavour and colouring.
There exists a well-established tradition connected with the research of culture-specific items in fiction in Ukrainian [7,8] and foreign translation theory [9], but the problem is far from being solved as there is no unanimity even as to the term itself. Bulgarian and Post-Soviet theories of translation studies are based on the notion of realia, Ukrainian реалія, Russian реалия [10], whereas American, Asian and Western European traditions offer a number of terms, such as cultural words [11], culture-bound problems [12], culture-bound concepts [13], culture-specific terms [14], culture-specific items [15]. What unites different approaches is the thought that cultural information is one of the sources of untranslatability [16] and is a challenge for translators.
We argue that historical culture-specific items employed by the writers in fiction comprise the cultural code, which is defined as a way of structuring cultural knowledge [17: 20], a set of images and ideas that are ethnically and culturally determined and are verbalized by means of a language in the literary work. The translator's task is to render the cultural code without distorting it. The latter is problematic, as the receiver can impose his or her own artistic language on the source text and re-code it [18: 25] in the process of translation.
When it comes to culture-specific items representation in translation, notwithstanding their low translatability [19: 223], there exists a definite tradition to render them in translation with the help of transcoding or borrowing, calque, description, approximation, transformation [20: 7], renomination [7], adaptation [21] to compensate for the lack of equivalence [16: 73].
Most culture-specific items in a historical novel are represented by archaisms and historicisms that reflect the atmosphere of the epoch where the scene is laid. Such lexical units can be used in order to render the corresponding items of the source text or they can be applied in the contexts when there are no archaisms and historicisms in the source text.
Research methods of the paper comprise textual analysis aiming at specifying the structure of the source and target texts; contextual analysis helping to define the historical and cultural atmosphere of the source text; translational analysis allowing to single out techniques used by the translators while rendering culture-specific items in Ukrianian and Russian; the analysis of dictionary definitions making it possible to identify the meaning of the culture-specific items in the source text and the lexemes used to render them in the target texts; contrastive analysis enabling us to state the differences in the process of presentation of culture-specific items in English, Ukrainian and Russian.

Results and Discussion
The culture-specific items denoting status of a person in the novel Gone with the Wind verbalise the cultural code of the text. In this study we differentiate the lexical units naming people, mainly the inhabitants of the USA, according to their background, political and religious beliefs, social layer, occupation, ethnic and Afro-American identity.
As the novel describes the struggle of the North and the South from the point of view of the Southerners, the author uses nominations of the inhabitants of these regions. For example, the negatively coloured lexeme Yankee, which at the time described in the novel had the meaning of a native or inhabitant of the northern U.S. [22], actualizes the semes 'place of birth' and 'place of living'. It is used in the novel to describe those who were associated with the North: And anyway, the Yankees are too scared of us to fight [1: 7].
The item Yankee is rendered in the Ukrainian translation with the help of transcoding: І, крім того, янкі занадто бояться нас, щоб напасти [2: 8]. In fact, the word янкi is present in the online dictionary of the foreign words and in its first meaning is labeled as Назва жителів Нової Англії у XVIII столітті [23]. The Russian language borrowed the lexeme янки in the meaning of уроженец или житель Новой Англии (северовосточных штатов США) [24: 945]. As it is seen from the dictionary definitions the Ukrainian borrowed lexeme янкi has the semes 'place of living' and 'time', whereas the Russian equivalent demonstrates the presence of the semes 'place of living', 'place of birth' being nearer in meaning to the English lexeme. The technique of transcoding is found in the Russian target text as well: Да и вообще, янки слишком боятся нас, чтобы решиться с нами воевать [3: 19]. Thus, in both translations the technique of transcoding is applied and the borrowings which have already entered the Ukrainian and Russian dictionaries of the foreign words are used.
It should be noted that there are cases when the item Yankee of the original text is translated into Ukrainian and Russian with the help of stylistically neutral lexemes північани and северяне correspondingly, as in the following example: But now the Confederate ports were stoppered with Yankee gunboats… [1: 144]; Але тепер порти Конфедерації блокував флот північан… [2: 156]; Но теперь, когда военные корабли северян блокировали порты конфедератов… [3: 140]. Native Ukrainian word північани means мешканці півночі [25: 384], whereas Russian северянин is interpreted as уроженец или житель севера [26: 697], thus both lexemes have the seme 'place of living', although the Russian lexeme additionally actualizes the seme 'place of birth' corresponding more to the meaning of the English lexeme Yankee which has both semes as well. In this case, the stylistically neutral synonym implements the technique of neutralisation, although the meaning of the source lexeme is preserved. In fact, English lexeme Northerner is labeled as a native or resident of the northern part of the U.S. [22]. Thus, dictionary definitions of the words Yankee and northerner coincide. So, the Ukrainian північани and Russian северянин can be translational doublets of the Ukrainian янкі and Russian янки.
The inhabitants of the Southern states are called in the novel in a number of ways. The most neutral lexical item is Southerner defined in the dictionary as especially : a native or resident of the southern part of the U.S. [22]. For example: And she thinks Southerners are barbarians [1: 17].
In the Ukrainian translation the word Southerner is rendered with the help of the native Ukrainian item південці, which has a meaning of мешканці півдня [25: 379]: І ще при тому думає, що ми, південці, -варвари [2: 20]. The Russian translation offers an equivalent южанин -уроженец или житель юга [26: 902]: И при этом она ведь считает нас, южан, дикарями [3: 28]. The analysis of the dictionary definitions demonstrates that both English Southerner and Russian южанин characterize a person according to the place of birth and the place of living, while Ukrainian південці identifies a person only according to the place of living. At the same time, the English word restricts the place of birth or living to the United States only, whereas Ukrainian and Russian lexemes do not indicate it. Hence, in both translations literal or direct translation with the help of a native lexeme of the target language takes place.
Another term used is Confererate -an adherent of the Confederate States of America or their cause [22]. As it comes from the definition the word names a person according to their political beliefs. In the novel the lexeme Confederate designates also those who served in the Confederate Army: The Confederates marched in their sleep, too tired to think for the most part [1: 291].
At the same time, in the Ukrainian language the word конфедерати is associated with the history of Poland, as it comes from the dictionary definition: У феодальнокріпосницькій Польщі учасники конфедерацій [27]. The dictionary definition labels Russian конфедераты -в Польше в 16-18 вв. -участники конфедерации [24: 394] in a similar way. In both translations the borrowing from a Western Slavic language which has a different meaning from the English lexeme Confederate, but is identical in form is applied. Nevertheless, in the target Ukrainian and Russian texts of the novel the meaning of Ukrainian конфедерати and Russian конфедераты is clear from the context of the novel.
Social division in the Southern states is represented by a number of words and word combinations. Several nominations are connected with poor white inhabitants of the South. Lexeme Cracker is defined in the dictionary as offensive -used as an insulting and contemptuous term for a poor, white, usually Southern person or sometimes offensive: a native or resident of Florida or Georgia -used as a nickname [22]. For example: but the boys had less grammar than most of their poor Cracker neighbors [1: 6]. As it is seen from the context the lexeme Cracker has negative connotation. The Ukrainian translation fully ignores it: але щодо граматики, то цих двійко хлопців пасли задніх навіть порівняно з більшістю своїх білих сусідів з незаможного фермерства [2: 8], choosing descriptive translation and the technique of neutralisation, giving no hint to the offensive character of the original nomination, but specifies the race, type of property and status: білі сусіди з незаможного фермерства. The nomination defining the nobility is found in the description of Scarlett's mother, who is called a Coast aristocrat of French descent [1: 5]. The name makes it clear that she belonged to the upper class, her ancestors came from France, and she was brought up near the sea as the word coast is defined in the dictionary as the land next to or close to the sea [28]. Nevertheless, the full understanding of the phrase Coast aristocrat comes if you are acquainted with the geography of Georgia which is bordered to the southeast by the Atlantic Ocean. Later on in the source text it is specified that Ellen was brought up in Savannah [1: 56], which makes the notion of a Coast aristocrat clear to the reader. In the Ukrainian translation we find a phrase аристократки французького роду з надбережжя [2: 6], the meaning of which can be lost upon the Ukrainian reader as it is not clear what special meaning should be attached to the analogues lexeme надбережжя which in Ukrainian means смуга землі вздовж берега [32: 62]. As it is seen from the dictionary definition Ukrainian надбережжя can be attributed to any body of water, thus, this technique of approximate translation can be misleading. In the Russian translation местной аристократки французского происхождения [2: 17]  The novel has the nouns that name occupations of white inhabitants of the South. For example, the lexeme trapper which is labeled in the dictionary as in American English a person who traps; esp., one who traps fur-bearing animals for their skins [33] is used in the following context: son of a swamp trapper [1: 20]. Both Ukrainian (сина трапера з болотяної долини [2: 23]) and Russian (сын старого траппера [3: 31]) translations apply the technique of transcoding. Besides, Russian траппер is labeled in the dictionary of foreign words as охотник на пушного зверя в Сев. Aмерике, пользующийся чаще всего западнями [24: 797], the definition makes it clear that the occupation does not exist outside the USA and, hence, the word is unknown outside American culture.
In the source text the item negro is used in different contexts, for example: the Tarletons owned a hundred negroes [1: 19]. In the translation the nomination can be substituted by a contextual equivalent as in the Ukrainian variant Тарлтони володіли цілою сотнею рабів [2: 22], or rendered by the lexical equivalent негр: Тарлтонывладельцы сотни негров [3: 30]. Another substitution of the equivalent lexeme негр is found when in Russian the adjective чернокожий combined with a noun naming a person is used when rendering the word negro of the source text. For example: Beside her perched the bow-legged little negro who had trained her horses [1: 482]; Кривоногий, малорослый чернокожий малый -объездчик лошадей -сидел с ней рядом [3: 440]. In this context the Ukrainian translation preserves the equivalent негр: Поруч з нею примостився клишоногий малоросток-негр, колишній об'їждчик коней [2: 515].
In the direct speech of the characters Afro-Americans are nominated with the help of the noun darky which is offensive and used as an insulting and contemptuous term for a black person [22] is found: You darkies know everything that goes on [1: 14]. The insulting character of the lexeme is reflected in the translations under analysis where the technique of approximation is applied. The Ukrainian translator chooses the noun чорнюк derived from the adjective чорний: від вас, чорнюків, не сховаєшся [2: 16]. In the Russian translation we find the lexeme черномазый in the meaning of colloquial, disapproving dark-skinned and dark-haired [26: 869]: У вас, черномазых, всегда ушки на макушке [3: 25]. So, both translations preserve the insulting character of the English lexeme using approximate equivalents.
Word combinations with the adjective black include stylistically coloured black wench, where wench in one of its meanings is defined as a lewd woman [22]. The above-mentioned word-combination is found in the speech of white Southerners: They promised all the black wenches silk dresses and gold earbobs [1: 439]. The analysis of the target texts shows that the Ukrainian translation uses the form of the Female Gender чорнючка of the noun чорнюк, which allows preserving the derogative character of the lexeme wench: Наобіцяли чорнючкам шовкових суконь та золотих сережок [2: 470]. The Russian translation, however, applies the noun негритянка, which at the time, when the translation was made, did not show any negative connotation: Они наобещали негритянкам шелковых платьев да золотых сережек [3: 402].
Culture items denoting Afro-American servants are presented by several items in the source text. For instance, a specific item mammy names an Afro-American woman-slave who acts as a nanny for the children of the masters. The dictionary of the English language defines mammy as a black woman serving as a nurse to white children especially formerly in the southern U.S. [22]. For example: Mammy felt that she owned the O'Haras [1: 24].
Other nominations of servants include names of male occupations valet described in the explanatory dictionary as a man's male servant who performs personal services (such as taking care of clothing) [22] and butler defined in the dictionary as the chief male servant of a household who has charge of other employees, receives guests, directs the serving of meals, and performs various personal services [22]. For instance: As valet, he kept Gerald's bedroom in order, and, as butler, he served the meals with dignity and style [1: 52].
The Ukrainian target text renders the nominations of the servants, applying the technique of approximation and the use of a partial equivalent лакей (defined in the dictionary as слуга у панів або при ресторані, готелі [29: 438]) when it comes to the item valet and the technique of omission when it comes to the lexeme butler, concentrating on the duties performed: Як лакей, кімнату Джералда він тримав у належній чистоті й охайності, і за столом прислуговував гідно і вправно [2: 58].

Conclusions
The analysis of the historical culture-specific items denoting social status in the source text of the novel Gone with the Wind by M. Mitchell and their rendering in the target texts in Ukranian and Russian makes it clear that such items play a significant role in creating a historical atmosphere in the source and target texts. The research proves that culturespecific items denoting status are divided into those naming the inhabitants of the USA according to their background, political and religious views, social stratification, occupation, ethnic or Afro-American identity. The above mentioned lexemes verbalise the cultural code of the novel. The problems with their representation in the translations are connected with the fact that they do not always have direct correspondences in the languages of the target texts. As a result, the translator resorts to a number of translation techniques, such as transcoding and borrowing from the English or other European languages alone or combined with descriptive translation (elicitation); literal translation with the help of a native lexeme of the target language; descriptive translation (explicitation); the loss of stylistic colouring, neutralization; approximate translation with the help of a partial equivalent; the use of the translational doublet; contextual translation, and omission. The research proves that in the majority of cases the Ukrainian and Russian translations demonstrate the choice of the similar techniques, the rare differences lie in the fact that the Ukrainian variant strives for the description combined with transcoding in order to make the meaning clearer to the reader, whereas the Russian variant is limited by transcoding alone. Besides, there are cases when one of the translations shows neutralisation and the loss of the stylistic effect, whereas the other manages to preserve it.
The further perspectives of the study are connected with defining the specifics of the translation techniques used in rendering historical culture-specific items from Ukrainian into English.