Translating paratextual elements of online news texts from English into Ukrainian

The paratext is defined as textual and visual elements that surround and support the core text. It is also any material additional to, appended to or external to the content, which has functions of explaining, defining, instructing, supporting, or adding background information, the relevant opinions and attitudes of scholars, translators and reviewers. The article examines the significance of the paratext and its components in the translation of online news texts. The objective of the paper is to demarcate a theoretical framework based on literary criticism, media and translation studies, which can provide the ground for media translators and researchers. In particular, this paper determines the paratext and paratextual elements within the scope of news discourse; singles out the most potent paratextual elements in news translation; and presents the most frequent challenges of rendering paratextual elements in the translation of online news texts from English into Ukrainian. The research provides some insights brought by the notion of the paratext to translation studies, as well as the neighbouring disciplines of digital and media studies. The analysis highlights the complex paratextual elements, which have never ceased to challenge translators, mainly headlines, subheadings and leads of online news texts.


Introduction
Lately the study of media translation has grown significantly [1,2,3] and linguistic, cultural, and ideological aspects of news texts have gained the most interest of researchers [4,5,6]. The close attention to paratextual elements in news discourse and especially in digital media and thus new forms of text production and consumption has led to fresh insights into news text specificity [6]. Nowadays media scholars emphasise that "paratextual units of news texts constitute a coherent and relatively autonomous microsystem, despite certain structural and functional differences, and that this microsystem is placed as a text strategic field (threshold) between the sender and receiver of news text" [6]. The paratext is textual and visual elements that surround and support the core text. It is also any material additional to, appended to or external to the core text which has functions of explaining, defining, instructing, supporting, or adding background in literary works may be subordinate to the text, media scholars [5,6] state that they are the most important components in news discourse, as paratextual elements are the first encounter for a potential reader or viewer. Paratextual elements are of paramount importance in writing as well as in the perception of news texts, and journalists see them as top priority. They are sometimes referred to as "the fringe of the printed text" [8] which, actually, controls the whole reading. The primary task of a media translator is to get "the fringe benefits" of paratextual elements, so that these constituents could become competitive and rewarding in the target news text. The reader's assumptions about the content of a news text, its quality and trustworthiness depend on the translator's interpretation of paratextual elements and their further design. R.Skare indicates that most of the paratextual elements explored by G.Genette are textual parameters, but there are also non-textual manifestations: iconic such as illustrations; material, for instance, typography, format, paper quality; and factual -the author's name, reputation, awards and so on [9].
While studying the paratextual elements of news texts in the perspective of the interdisciplinary approach, which combines the theories of literary criticism, media and translation studies, we can conclude that paratextual elements thus are liminal textual and visual constituents related to the main text in a way that enables the work to be complete and offered to its readers and, more generally, to the public. Having analysed news in the press as a specific type of discourse, T.A. van Dijk pointed out the main features of news discourse: "…more than in any other type of text, macrostructures are explicitly expressed in the news report, as headlines and leads" [4]. Considering news texts from the translator's perspective, we can conclude that such paratextual elements as headlines and leads, which T.A. van Dijk calls "the summary of news texts", demand the closest attention in translation. These elements are considered to be "the intensive positions" in stylistics too [20]. Paratextual elements can be seen at the beginning and the end of news texts, mainly the headline, the lead, the subheading and some possible "tail" components. But we must remember that sometimes they can be in the middle: some author's or editor's remarks in brackets, pictures, tweets and so on. The current tendency to insert some tweets into the body of the text can be observed in many newspapers.

Materials, main objectives and methods of investigation
Our observations are based on more than 570 online news texts from 25 English and Ukrainian newspapers and magazines, which have been analysed in the course of Translation of Modern Social and Political Texts designed for undergraduate students studying at the Translation Department of Taras Shevchenko National University in Kyiv. This course has been taught for five years and prepared future translator to professional work in the sphere of media industry.
This analysis intends to present cultural and social implications of paratextual elements, which are really essential to convey in news translation. So, the main objectives of the research are to answer the following questions: o Which paratextual elements are top priority in the translation of news texts? o What challenges are we to deal with while translating the paratextual elements of news texts?
The application of the paratextual analysis into our study alongside with traditional content, comparative and descriptive methods allows broadening the scope of this research. Comparative and descriptive methods are used in order to single out similar and distinct features of news in English and Ukrainian languages. The content investigation is required to substantiate certain translation decisions studied in the article. The paratextual analysis helps to understand that a new notion "paratranslation" has wide implications, as it can be applied not only to pure translation but also to the spheres of editing, publishing and design of news texts. Thus the term "paratranslation" presupposes that the frames of translation can be considerably augmented, incorporating all possible paratextual verbal and non-verbal components. Moreover, in media translation it frequently happens that one target news text is created from several source texts. For instance, in Ukraine we can find only the BBC and Voice of America services which provide news online in English and Ukrainian. Having analysed BBC news features, we conclude that very few articles can be regarded as full translations of source texts. And if some source texts are blended into a target one, usually, the most high-powered paratextual elements are brought into the target culture. Considering all relevant factors, only verbal paratextual elements are to be explored in this article, as their representation and interpretation greatly depend on the decisions and choices of translators and editors. Non-verbal items can be optional in translation and depend mostly on the publishers of certain media sources and their publishing policy. Taking into account that in Ukraine we have nowadays only two news services available in both languages (in English and Ukrainian), the research demonstrates the translation examples taken from BBC Ukrainian service, as well as the samples of students' translations collected in the result of the experiment conducted at the Translation Department of Taras Shevchenko National University in Kyiv. In order to comprehend the role of paratextual elements in translating news, the students participating in the experiment had to take three basic stages: 1. Firstly, the students were asked to translate particular news headlines separately from news texts.
2. Then the students were given the same headlines supplemented by leads and sometimes subheadings. If the students saw it necessary to make some changes or corrections of their previous versions, they took appropriate decisions.
3. Finally, the whole news texts were proposed to the students, and they had a chance to make final corrections.
Eventually, we have made a comparative analysis of the first, middle and final versions of their translations and singled out the similarities and dissimilarities between them.

Paratextual elements of news texts in the framework of translation
News translators regard paratextual elements as part and parcel of translated texts as they can reach the reader before the translation itself. They are expected to offer reliable but at the same time memorable information. Translating news texts, we should remember how people read and especially now, when we mostly search for information online. Dealing with paratextual elements, it should be kept in mind that they are in many cases adjusted to or even sometimes substituted for new ones coined according to the stylistic rules of the target language and expectations of the target audience. That is why it is impossible to translate for media without comprehending and assimilating the main rules of journalism. Trying to point out the most relevant paratextual elements in translation, we have to take into account the main principle of news structure, which is known as "the inverted pyramid". The "inverted pyramid" structure organizes all facts in the story in order of importance, so that what was lost at the end of the story was the least significant material [21]. T.A. van Dijk states that news, at least globally, displays a "top-down, schema-driven and relevance-dependent" realisation of information, which means that important information comes first [4]. This structure works admirably for most news texts because the consumers who are interested in further information can keep reading, while other readers, who stop early, still get the most important information. The task which is put before media translators is to render the headline in the way which is powerful enough to make the reader go on to the second sentence -usually the lead. Rendering the paratext, it is relevant to take some crucial factors into consideration. Firstly, the specificity of news translation is that media translators frequently have to combine translation and journalistic skills as an essential prerequisite for their professional activity. It is especially obvious in the countries whose languages are not as dominant in the modern world as English. Nowadays most media content is being spread in English, while such cultures as the Ukrainian one often rely on English source materials to highlight international news and events. Secondly, today's fast-paced society is transforming reading habits due to current increasing dependence on the Internet. Most readers just skim headlines and some adjacent information sections and if they are not appealing and informative enough, they know that there are plenty of other sources easily accessible at one click. Headlines, leads and subheadings in news texts are to be attention-catching, as they are the first encounters with the reader. They reveal important shades of meaning and create implicit layers of the text as a whole. The experiment conducted at the Translation Department of Taras Shevchenko National University in Kyiv proves that a translation analysis can never be complete without incorporating all essential components surrounding news texts such as headlines, leads and subheadings.

Headlines or "MAN BITES DOG"
The headline "MAN BITES DOG" is a classic journalism aphorism about the difference between an everyday event and news. It was first used for The Washington Post's front page in 1950 and is attributed to Mark Twain's quote: "When a dog bites a man, that is not news, because it happens so often. But if a man bites a dog, that is news" [22]. The phrase describes how an unusual, infrequent title is considered more likely to attract readers. The phenomenon is also described in the journalistic maxim: "You never read about a plane that did not crash" [22]. These mantras are well known among journalists, but it does not mean that translators are always aware of them. What we are to remember in translation: it is necessary to catch the reader's eye with a headline. The mistake many students make is that they translate headlines hastily or leave them out entirely, not realizing their real purpose. Translated headlines should be so appealing to the reader that they convince them to plough straight in and continue reading. To be good at translating headlines, students must learn the art of headlinese. Translating headlines, students should remember that they are, to some extent, the criterion of journalistic skills, talent and culture. And as it has already been mentioned, most readers (according to some data to 80 percent [22]) pay attention only to headlines and leads. Hannah Rock, a chief editor at The Times, is the final checkpoint for newspaper stories and makes sure the headlines stand up, make sense and encourage the reader to dive into the story. She offers some tips for writing a headline for online news, which are really useful to follow in translation: to capture the key message of the story and create a headline that best encapsulates the story and then inject some life into the headline and gear it for online. Discussing stylistic devices, H. Rock insists on using puns appropriately [23]. Puns in headlines can be real challenges in news translation: The term "commander-in-chief" has a Ukrainian equivalent "головнокомандувач", which is also a compound noun. But we cannot create a compound noun in the case of this neologism in translation and have to resort to neutralisation: ГОЛОВНИЙ КОНСПІРАЦІОНІСТ США.
Although reading the news text, it becomes clear that we can see double deformation of the compound part "chief". CNN discusses President Donald Trump's decision to retweet a baseless conspiracy theory and implies his position as a chief executive in the USA. The pun from the source text is inevitably lost in translation, but the substitution of the pronoun "OUR" by the name of the country "США" makes this "short story" transparent to some extent and at the same time intriguing for the target audience.
F.Frandsen examines "the headline system" which can also incorporate the superheadline (found at the top of the newspaper's front page), the main headline and the subheadline, which is a heading preceding the main text, or a group of paragraphs of the main text [6].

Subheadings
The subhead can be either a subordinate title under the main headline, or the heading of a subsection of the article [22]. Extended news texts often have more than one subheadings. It is also common to insert subheadings that help to structure information and make a news text more coherent and consistent. If the first objective of most news texts is to catch the reader's eye with a headline, the task of a subheading is to make them take a step closer to the very gist of the story. So when the headline is a name for a piece of writing, the subheading can be an alternate headline or give further explanation of the title. Both work together to build curiosity and tell the reader what the piece is about. It is a success if this cooperation between the title and subheading is conveyed in translation. Subheadings can divide a news text into some reader-friendly parts, as the example below demonstrates: Heading The headline and the lead have undergone some transformations, mainly transpositions ("Kaiser" is moved to the headline and then again repeated in the lead) and additions (the day and the date are supplemented in the lead). The subheading, which is allusive to the Hollywood musical "A Star is Born", is conveyed in Ukrainian by a nominal sentence preserving the translated name of the film "Народження зірки".
Subheads are thus one type of entry point that help readers make choices, such as where to begin or stop reading.

Leads
The lead is the first sentence or paragraph of a news text, which summarises the point of the story and encourages people to keep reading. It is located below the headline and is usually graphically distinct from the body of the text, so media scholars see it as an essential part of paratext. The lead should capture the essence of who, what, when, where, why and howbut without giving away the entire context. The translator has to be aware that the main task of the lead is to grab the attention of the reader. If not attention-grabbing, it is sometimes called "burying the lead" [27]. William Zinsser in his book On Writing Well: The Classic Guide to Writing Nonfiction mentions: "The most important sentence in any article is the first one. If it doesn't induce the reader to proceed to the second sentence, your article is dead" [28]. F.Frandsen states that the headline and the lead constitute a coherent and relatively autonomous microsystem [6]. Some  The target headline prioritises her name, and we see it in the very beginning of the article. At the same time, the Ukrainian translation omits the name of Brandon Bernard in its heading and mentions him only in the lead for the first time, as his name is hardly known to target readers. The transformations of omission and transposition are observed in this translation, whereas the completely opposite approach can be seen in the next example: The magazine Time is well known for many readers, so it is given the first place in the Ukrainian heading and is not transliterated but written in English. Nevertheless, the Ukrainian lead demonstrates the transformation of logical development, as it can be regarded as more explicative in comparison to the original. It is added that Time is an influential magazine, which has named the Person of the Year since 1927. The translation decisions are mostly situational and can be considered to be optional choices.

Research results: translation challenges in rendering the paratextual elements of news texts
The experiment conducted at the Translation Department of Taras Shevchenko National University in Kyiv has shown that most students face real problems while translating English paratextual elements because of their special grammar, lexical, stylistic and especially cultural specificity. So let us have a closer look at the most common translation challenges that the students had to solve. The undergraduates enrolled on the course of Translation of Modern Social and Political Texts reached a conclusion that transposing paratextual elements is one of the most frequent translation transformations: The headline in English is informative and problematic at the same time, but the transposition of theme and rheme in the target text puts more emphasis on the problematic function. The shortage of necessary items in hospitals becomes the theme in the Ukrainian translation.
Nevertheless, this headline was rather transparent in meaning for students and their translations changed little after reading the lead and then the whole article. But some headlines can be quite confusing and the lead becomes the first paratextual element which can help to find a solution: JOHN As the name of the former BBC correspondent is hardly known in Ukraine, it has been moved to the lead in translation. The transfer of the proper name and some extra details to the lead helped the students make the headline concise and sensational in Ukrainian. But this decision was reached only when they were given the headline with the lead. The transposition seems also reasonable when we have complex sentences in headlines:
Conveying paratextual elements, we should take into account the major differences between morphological and grammatical structures of English and Ukrainian news texts. For instance, future and past events are often denoted with present tense verbs in English headlines:

ELON MUSK BECOMES WORLD'S SECOND RICHEST PERSON Tech entrepreneur Elon Musk has topped Microsoft founder Bill Gates to become the world's second richest man after a meteoric rise in his personal fortune [36].
One of the functions of Present Simple tense in headlines in English is to make facts vivid and attention-catching. This function can be performed by nominal sentences in Ukrainian, and the dash is widely used instead of the verb: ІЛОН МАСК -ДРУГА НАЙБАГАТША ЛЮДИНА У СВІТІ. However, the usage of past tense is also common in Ukrainian headlines: , the very name "Keith" was misunderstood in both Ukrainian versions. These misleading translation decisions can be seen as rush steps and cannot be justified. It is obvious that the female name in English "Kate" is transcoded as "Кейт" in Ukrainian, but not the male name of Scottish origin "Keith", which should be transliterated as "Кіт". The same name of outstanding Keith Jarrett, an American jazz and classical music pianist and composer, is known as Кіт Джарретт in Ukraine. What is more, both Ukrainian news sites have a reference to the original BBC article, which clearly indicates the gender: "Washington said Mr Krach, who is the US undersecretary of economic affairs" [39]. It is essential to check all translation decisions by reading the whole story and taking into consideration all relevant facts. That is why it is necessary to understand that paratextual elements are always context-dependent, and they should interact with the whole text, even if they constitute a complete summary of the story. It is impossible to win the trust of consumers if the translation is quick enough to be the first on the Internet, albeit of poor quality. True journalists put forth a lot of efforts to gain the audience, and some proper names often become parts of neologisms:

BIDENOMICS: THE GOOD THE BAD AND THE UNKNOWN [42].
The article from the Economist anticipates how Joe Biden's future actions could influence the US economy and creates a new word "Bidenomics" ("Biden" + "economics"). The compound noun is rather transparent and can be quite easily brought into Ukrainian: "БАЙДЕНОМІКА".
Besides, some neologisms are caused by particular new tendencies or events that take place around the world. Nowadays new-coined words are being created in English headlines due to a Covid-19 pandemic. Most Ukrainian online sources have borrowed the pandemic term "lockdown" and just transliterated it as "локдаун". If it is not possible to copy or calque neologisms in translation, we often have to resort to the transformation of logical development in Ukrainian: "three tier lockdown" -"трирівневий локдаун", "circuit breaker" -"короткотривалий локдаун", "social bubble" -"соціальна бульбашка", "travel bubble" -"безпековий коридор для подорожей". That is why it is necessary to analyse the lead which can clarify a neologism or, if it is not enough, even the whole article. The term "travel bubbles" or quarantine-free travel has emerged since the beginning of this year when countries had to seal their borders to foreign visitors:

Heading: CORONAVIRUS: 'TRAVEL BUBBLE' PLAN TO HELP KICK-START FLIGHTS
Lead: Australia and New Zealand are planning a 'travel bubble', or corridor, that will allow the quarantine-free flow of people between the two neighbours [43].
The same article in Ukrainian has been completely rearranged by the BBC translators, as the neologism "travel bubble" had to be introduced into a new culture. The translator of the article decided to start with more general issues and chose for the title a completely neutral heading, while the lead of the English article became the tail in Ukrainian translation: Heading: ЯК МИ ЛІТАТИМЕМО ПІСЛЯ КОРОНАВІРУСУ The final sentence of the article: Австралія та Нова Зеландія, наприклад, обговорюють створення так званої "бульбашки" або безпекового коридору, що уможливить потоки подорожуючих між сусідніми країнами під час пандемії [44].
The translation decisions signify that the Ukrainian text incorporates some information of the English article, but it is more informative and explicative.
Modern research also proves high incidence of intertextual inclusions into the paratext, especially into headlines. The experiment conducted among the undergraduates has shown that some precedent names and allusions from literature, especially biblical ones, are the most challenging to recognise and translate: Heading: BREXIT The article does not have a lead paragraph, which is usually graphically distinct from the whole text. Neither the headline nor the subheading provides us with the information which can clarify the implications in them. The allusion to the biblical story of "The Last Supper" creates much ambiguity and is quite challenging to translate. This expression signifying the final meal that Jesus shared with his apostles is commonly known as "Тайна вечеря" in Ukrainian, which is "The Secret Supper" if translated literally into English. That is why a broader contextual analysis is needed to take some translation decisions. The introductory sentence also contains the reference to the Bible: Boris Johnson will travel to Brussels for the first time in months on Wednesday night to sit and break bread with the EU Commission chief Ursula von der Leyen [45].
The phase "to break bread" in the Bible refers to the Holy Communion or the Eucharist, when Jesus takes bread, breaks it and gives it to others. Today the expression is often used "to affirm trust, confidence, and comfort with an individual or group of people" [46]. At the same time the original article provides some hints on possible private talks during the visit: If they are willing to make that kind of pact -to say privately to each other, I'm willing to budge if you are toothen that would in theory allow technical talks to get going again [45].
In order to preserve the original Biblical allusion, the following translation decision was reached among the students when they read the whole article: БРЕКЗИТ: ЧИ НЕ СТАНЕ ТАЙНА ВЕЧЕРЯ В БРЮССЕЛІ ОСТАННЬОЮ? Then the subheading "Could it be the last supper?" was substituted for the lead paragraph, which was created from the first introductory sentence of the original: Борис Джонсон поїде до Брюсселю у середу, щоб поговорити і розділити таїнство вечері з Урсулою фон дер Ляєн, президенткою Європейської комісії.
Та чи не стане ця вечеря останньою? Subsequently, we can conclude that the usage of cultural units and devices requires the most meticulous approach and cultural adaptation in translation. If allusions in the paratext are recognised and properly defined, it is easier to find a suitable approach to rendering all intended implications in translation. At the same time, we have to pay heed to the most characteristic features of English news writing and adjust paratextual elements to the norms and traditions of the target culture.

Conclusion
The translation approaches to the paratextual elements of news texts should take into account the following factors: translating news texts requires the translator's meticulous approach to paratextual components, together with profound background knowledge and insights into the heart of journalism; the translation of paratextual elements presupposes the knowledge of the rules of journalism in source and target cultures, which can be instrumental in rendering appropriate implications of news texts in translation; headlines, subheadings and leads constitute a microstructure of news texts and are the most challenging paratextual elements, as they often call for cultural, political and historical competencies of the translator; the translation analysis of paratextual elements of news texts is expected to take into account their intensive textual positions as being interwoven into contextual relationships, which requires the translator's competence and optimal translating decisions; headlines and subheadings are regarded to be intensive positions in news texts as they determine the main themes of stories, direct the reader's attention and embody key ideas; the translation of headlines and subheadings necessitates the skills in journalism, which can help to create target attention-grabbing equivalents and trigger the reader's expectations; headlines as paratextual elements are often characterized by semantic and syntactic complexity and multitargeted functions; the translation of news headlines is often context-dependent and involves a careful consideration of their interaction with the lead and the whole text; rendering the microstructure of headlines and leads, we often resort to such translation transformations as generalization, omission, addition, substitution, and transposition in translation; the analysis of paratextual elements proves that their translation often demands stylistic and cultural adaptation in the target language.